11 Major steps of introduction in Research not to miss

 Introduction in Research is the first part, which  includes a statement and analysis of the nature of the problem and the development of the foundation for the intended investigation. It generally comprises a statement of the factors leading up to the choice of the problem, the purposes of the study, the value and significance attached to the problem by the investigator as a contribution to education and any information to express the sincerity of the investigator in his/her selection. The divisions of the introductory part of research are discussed in this article.

Background to the study

This is the general introductory part of the research which serves as an orientation to the investigation. The background presents the setting or position of the study. It is there to give a brief overview of the problem the researcher seeks to tackle. The importance of the background cannot be overemphasised because without it, one may not know what has motivated a researcher to embark on a particular study or the challenges faced which have necessitated the study. Furthermore, without the background, it would not be easy to establish the originality of the problem and ways in which improvement may be made. In the background is like a house in which the statement of the actual problem resides.

Example of a background to the study:

Abortion is on the increase in urban secondary schools in Livingstone. Although some people in society think the problem is not that important and is being overemphasised; it (abortion) is not only exposing students to the danger of acquiring HIV/AIDS but also threatening their academic performance.

It has been discovered that 48% of adolescents who get pregnant while in school brave an abortion even though the government introduced the Re -entry policy. If this dangerous practice remains uncurbed, Livingstone will be at a high risk of having the majority of its secondary school students ejected from the school system because of subsequent health complications or even premature death. Mulyokela (2010) observes that the increase in the cases of abortion among students could be as a result of the gap in information about sexuality and contraceptives.

Commenting on the methods implored in aborting, Muwowo (2008) laments that the most common is where a reed is taken and sharpened and then used to pock the amniotic sack thereby destabilising the innocent foetus. In a study conducted by Lungu et al (2014), it was established that the main reason for abortion was the fact that the baby was unwanted and unplanned for. This study will as such endeavour to investigate the causes and effects of abortion on secondary school students in Livingstone from students who have themselves been engaged in the practice.

 Statement of the problem

An issue or concern that puzzles the researcher and compels him or her to embark on a particular study is what is referred as the research problem. A statement and elucidation of the problem usually forms a part of the introduction. In this part, the problem as already highlighted in the background to the study is stated in simple, clear and unambiguous terms.

It is a vital part of the research proposal because it acts as road map in the entire process. If the problem is stated in a clear-cut and logical manner, the reader is able to get a sufficiently clear insight into the study from the very beginning. As such, care must be taken in order to have a well stated problem. To that effect, the problem should be finalised and stated after a sufficient study, reflective thinking, consultation, discussion and , guidance.

Examples

1. Effective implementation of the curriculum is a key to classroom learning. This may be influenced by different factors which may include theories of cognitive development. However, little is known about the impact of Piaget’s theory on curriculum implementation, hence the study.
2. Research has shown that abortion is prevalent and on the rise among secondary school students in Livingstone. However, the causes and effects of abortion on education are not known, hence the study.
3. The increase in the prevalence of problem behaviours during adolescence is a national concern. The study by Kapasa (2011) revealed that there was rapid erosion of discipline and lack of respect among children, especially those pursuing secondary education. Truancy and bullying, theft and vandalism are every day experiences in our schools. There is a contagious youth culture of academic negativism and misconduct that can thwart learning and disrupt school routine if not checked.
4. Carrell (1993) argues that, if society is not to be plagued by a group of disgruntled, frustrated and unrealistic individuals, it is desirable that adequate guidance and counselling and career information be provided so that we do not have pupils who graduate from secondary schools without knowing their career path as the case is in most secondary schools in Zambia.

In the face of these problems, the school guidance and counselling sections in secondary schools are supposed to offer a solution in terms of educational, personal, social and career counselling. Very little is known about how teachers and pupils perceive the guidance and counselling services offered in secondary schools? There is, therefore, need to examine teachers’ and pupils’ perception of the effectiveness of guidance and counselling services in Zambian secondary schools

Aim/purpose of the study

The aim or purpose of the study is what the researcher wants to achieve at the end of the study. It highlights the importance of the investigation further by projecting or explicating the intentions and goals of the research.

Purpose or aim of the study could be formulated as in the following examples:

• The aim of the study is to establish the impact of Piaget‘s theory on curriculum implementation and guide the practice in the education system.
• The purpose of the study is to determine the causes and effects of abortion on education and seek possible preventive measures.

Objectives of the study

Objectives are the intentions or purposes of the research, stated in specific and measurable terms. They are important because they give direction to the study and help the researcher understand the puzzle that makes him /her embark on the research. Objectives also help the researcher to decide on the appropriate research design and the method to be used to analyse the data in addition to limiting the extent to which literature should reviewed.

Examples of research objectives

Title 1

• To determine the impact of Piaget theory on curriculum implementation in lower primary schools.
• To assess teacher’s perception towards Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Title 2

• To determine the causes of abortion among secondary school students in Livingstone.
• To establish the effects of abortion on secondary school students in Livingstone.

Research questions

Research questions are of paramount importance in a research proposal in that they guide the whole process of research as well as provoke the interest of the reviewer. Research questions should among other things be clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable and the entire research should be centred on them.

Title 1

• What is the impact of Piaget theory on curriculum implementation in lower primary schools?
• What are teachers ‘perceptions of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Title 2

• What are the causes of abortion among secondary school students in Livingstone?
• What are the effects of abortion on secondary school students in Livingstone?

It is important to note that most of the times, the research questions are formulated on basis of the research objectives, they are equal in number and seek to find out the same as what the objective seeks to achieve.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about the possible differences, relationships or causes of research questions. It tries to pre-empt what the researcher thinks the outcome of the study will be. The hypothesis/hypotheses are formulated only after some experience and evidence.

Any assumptions underlying the same or restrictions placed on the same are also stated in order to build essential justification of the same. Then the investigator gives the hypotheses s/he has formulated for the purpose of collecting further evidence for the verification of the same.

A research hypothesis may or may not be true. In a situation where it is true, it still cannot be taken for granted that it applies to all situations. Among the different types of hypotheses are conceptual, research and statistical. As such, researches can have more than one hypothesis.

Example

Ho 1: There are no causes of abortion among secondary school students.

Ho 2: Abortion has no effects on secondary school students.

Ho 3: There is no relationship between abortion and academic performance.

Ho 4: There is no statistically significant difference in the number of secondary students having abortions.

Hypotheses can be used in both qualitative and quantitative researches.

Significance of the study

In this segment of the proposal, the reason for conducting the research is given in a clear statement. It is under this same section where the importance and implications of the study on the researchers, practitioners and policy makers and implementers is elaborated. You will therefore need to justify the usefulness of your research in clear but brief terms in this section.

Examples

1. It is hoped that the study will generate information on the impact of Piaget‘s theory on curriculum implementation and guide practice in the education system. (In research proposal)

2. The study is hoped to generate information on the causes and effects of abortion on secondary school students in Livingstone and sought possible preventive measures. (In final report)

3. It is hopeful that the findings of this study might help counsellors, law and policy makers to come up effective and efficiency ways of handling people who are grieved due to the loss of the spouse.

Furthermore the study could contribute to the body of knowledge on the better understanding of widowhood transition period. Basing on the stories gathered through interviews on their experiences described by surviving spouses and other information, widows/widowers are likely to be in the better position of dealing with their loss effectively.

Furthermore, the researchers believe that the study will be a source of strength, support and hope that, given time, all will be well; it will create a feeling of having others in the same situation to look up to, and will assist them to accept a situation that cannot be changed.

Theoretical framework

A theory is a supposition or speculation about a phenomenon. A theoretical framework is a group of interrelated ideas based on theories. What a theoretical framework attempts to do, therefore, is to clarify why things are the way they are based on theories. The theories contained in a theoretical framework have to be those that are recognised and should be testable and are subject to rejection or revision. There is therefore a strong relationship between a theory and research.

Introduction in Research – Theoretical framework

Example of theoretical framework

For title 1

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development will be/was used in the study. The theory views cognitive development in stages. Piaget posits that children undergo the same stages of development. These, stages are sensory motor stage, pre-operation stage, operational stage and concrete operational stage.

These stages of development are characterised with different abilities. Piaget noted that children below the age of seven have not developed abstract thought. However, when children reach the age of seven, they develop what Piaget called object permanence and understand the principal of conservation at this age.

They also have the ability to decentre .Despite the developments , Piaget noted that children are not fully developed mentally such that reasoning is still enhanced by what they see (Munsaka and Matafwali 2013). Therefore, the researcher hopes/endeavoured to ascertain the extent to which this theory influences curriculum implementation in lower grades in primary schools.

For title 2.

The theoretical framework that will be/was used in this study is the Psychoanalysis theory by Sigmund Freud. The theory has been chosen to ascertain whether abortion is caused by the id, ego and superego. According to the theory, the self is divided into these three parts that make a balanced human being. The id works on the pleasure or immediate satisfaction principle, the ego works on the reality principle, and superego is the societal internalised values that guide what is good and what is wrong, (Munsaka and Matafwali 2013).Therefore, the study- attempts to establish to what extent Psychoanalysis is applicable in explaining the causes and effects of abortion on secondary school students.

It should be noted that in an event where a researcher does not find a suitable theory, a conceptual framework can be the best alternative. A conceptual framework as defined by Smyth (2004) is an abstract or general idea which is inferred or arrived at from specific instances. Unlike the theoretical framework, a conceptual framework cannot be refuted or tested through research.

Limitations of the study

Limitations refers to the challenges that will be/ were encountered by the researcher such as the inappropriate use of research instruments or choosing a research design that does not suit the study and picking a study that is complex at the level of the researcher when he or she has no time.

Example

1. The study will be/was limited to selected primary schools in Lusaka district. Therefore, generalisation should be done with caution as the classroom environment may be different from other areas. The study will use/used semi structured interviews and this may limit generalisation of results. However, the results of the research will still be valid/ are still valid.

Delimitations of the study

This refers to the place where the study will be done/ was conducted. Any technical assumptions behind the investigation will also be clearly stated in this subdivision of introduction. It refers to the parameters or the scope of the study. Therefore, the exact area the investigation is supposed to cover must be well demarcated here. The sources of information selected and their nature and delimitations should also be mentioned and justified.

Example

The study will be/ was conducted in Livingstone because that is where there is a high prevalence of abortion.

Operational definitions of terms and paradigm

Also called, Definition of Important Terms; this refers to a list of words and their meaning as used in the study. In this part you define the terms that are essential to the study or are used in a restricted or unusual manner so the reader may understand the concepts employed. It gives the reader a clear concept of the scope of the study and the precise explanation offered for the problem.

Example

Abortion– this refers to using unhealthy and unlawful ways of expelling a foetus before gestation period is complete