WESTERN MISSIONARY EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA

 One of the first tasks that were undertaken by every
missionary group which entered the country was to commit to learning and
writing the vernacular language of the area in which they had opened their
mission station. The next step was to start a school and teach the people the
elements of reading and writing.

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education in Zambia

Missionary
Groups

Before
missionaries came to settle permanently in present-day Zambia, they had several
abortive attempts to establish mission stations. Nevertheless, they did not
tire but continued trying to penetrate the country.

Fredrick
Arnot was one of the timely great missionaries of the pioneer period. Born in
1855, Arnot was the first missionary after David Livingstone. Inspired by hearing David Livingstone speak about Africa, he decided to help David
Livingstone in his work. At 24 years Arnot came to Africa and his aim was to
establish a missionary station along the upper Zambezi River.

He
started evangelizing as he was going along the river before he could establish
a mission station, he had to seek permission king Lewanika. Though Lewanika did
not express excitement over the opening of a school due to the problems he had
in his kingdom, he did not refuse Arnot to open a school. Arnot opened his
first school in March, 1883 with an enrolment of three pupils all of whom were
boys and one untrained teacher, among the Lozi people. He also opened a mission
station under the name Christian Mission to Many Lands (CMML).

Despite
the difficulties, dangers, hardships and apathy of the African people, the
number of missionaries continued to increase. Another missionary after Fredrick
Arnot who stayed for a short time stayed in Western province. Arnot was
succeeded by Francois Coillard of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society
(PEMS) who established his first mission station at Sesheke in 1885 and at
Sefula in 1887. Sefula remained the field headquarters for the Paris mission.
He worked among the Lozi people and his first teachers were Basuto’s who
accompanied him on his long journey from South Africa.

The
second missionary society to enter the country from the south were the
Primitive Methodists. The group opened a station at Nkala (the ruins of which
can now be seen in the Kafue Game Park) in 1893. Later on other mission stations
were stations were established on the Kafue and Zambezi rivers. From an
educational point of view, the most important station at Kafue which John Fell
built and opened was a Teacher Training Institute in 1918.

Another
group of missionaries that penetrated into Northern Rhodesia from Tanganyika
were successful and opened the first London Missionary Society (LMS) station on
the Lakeshore of Tanganyika in 1883. Later they opened up stations among the
Mambwe, Bemba and Lunda people. The most important educational centre Mbereshi
was founded in 1900. Furthermore, the missionary group decided to call in a
lady missionary to take care of the women and girls’ education. The missionary
was Mable Shaw who introduced girls’ education in 1915.

There
came another group of missionaries from the church of Scotland. The group was
led by Robert Laws. Laws built the first church of Scotland mission station on
the shores of Lake Nyasa in 1875. Twenty years later, in 1894 he opened the
famous Livingstonia Institute at Kondowe. In the same year, a mission station
was opened (1894) inside North-Eastern Rhodesia near Fife among the Namwanga
people. At Chitambo where Livingstone died, a mission station was opened in
1907 by Malcom Moffat and Dr Hubert
Wilson, a grandson of the great explorer (David Livingstone). On the other
hand, an African missionary named David Kaunda, educated at Livingstonia had begun
evangelistic work in Chinsali area and his efforts led to the establishment of
a mission station at Lubwa. Later in 1922, another mission station was opened
at Chasefu among the Tumbuka people of Lundazi district.

Later
on, came the White Fathers who opened a mission station at Kayambi in 1895.
Under the leadership of Bishop Joseph Dupont, the society expanded its
activities. Bishop Dupont was nicknamed moto-moto (great fire) because of his
dynamic leadership. After gaining a foothold among the Bemba people, the White
Fathers Succeeded in establishing a strong network of station throughout
Northern, Eastern and Luapula Provinces. White Fathers continued to stream into the envy of non-Catholic missionaries who even saw the coming in of lay brothers,
a little later White Sister too set up mission stations throughout the eastern
half of the country. The other society who were trying to match the White
Fathers in numbers were the missionaries of the Dutch Reformed Church. Their
activities were almost confined to the Eastern province. The Dutch opened their
first church in North-Eastern Rhodesia (now Zambia) in Magwero in 1899. Further, a chain of strategically situated stations covered the Fort Jameson (Chipata)
and Petauke districts.

Other
Pioneer Mission Groups 1901-14

The
Catholic missionaries came in large numbers as compared to the others. In the
south of the country came the Jesuit Fathers. The Jesuits arrived at Chikuni
mission under the leadership of Father Joseph Moreau in Monze district and
established a mission station in 1905 among the Tonga people. Another mission
station was also opened at Kasisi east of Lusaka by Father Jules Torrend in
1906. From these stations other centres were opened largely in the Southern and
Central provinces of Zambia.

In the
same year 1905, four days before the Jesuits arrived at Chikuni, an American
from Indiana, William Anderson a member of the Seventh Day Adventist Church
(SDA) church also arrived. He began building a mission station at Rusangu in
Monze district. Subsequent expansion of the SDA activities led to the
establishment of widely scattered station near Ndola, kawambwa, Kalabo, Chipata
and Senanga. Rusangu remained the most important centre because of the
education activities.

Another
group of missionaries who entered Northern Rhodesia as an extension of their
work are the Brethren in Christ Church in 1906. Two American ladies, sisters
Annah Davidson and Addah Engle arrived at Macha in Choma district of Southern
Province. Due to lack of money and personnel, the Brethren in Christ only
opened two other station and could not go beyond that. Bishop Hine of the UMCA
opened the first Anglican station at Mapanza in Choma district among the Tonga
people in 1911. Another station was opened in Msoro area among the Kunda people
in Chipata by an African Priest. However, the UMCA did not give much support to
the mission stations as they had done in Uganda. They only gave support to
Mapanza because of its significance to educational work which it wanted to
develop.

The
other society which was the last to enter the country before the 1914-18 war
was the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society. They opened a station at
Chipembi in 1913 under the leadership of Henry Loveness and Douglas Gray. Other
stations were opened at Broken Hill, Lusaka and at Keembe in the western part
of Lenje reserve. Chipembi was developed as the society’s educational
headquarters and led the way in agricultural work and girls’ education.
Chipembi girls’ school was opened in 1927.

In
1926, Salvation Army came and established a mission station at Chikankata, they
also had a hospital within the vicinity. A further reinforcement of Catholics
arrived in 1913. These were the Capuchin Fathers who opened mission stations in
Lukulu, Maramba and Mongu which became important educational centre. The
Franciscan Fathers starting from Ndola in 1931, opened missions on the
Copperbelt mostly important was Ibenga Girls Secondary School as an educational
centre. Another small group was the Pilgrim Holiness Church which began its
operation in 1933 in Southern province.

To sum
up on the arrival of missionaries groups, a mention must be made of two further
bodies, the Church bodies such as United Missions on the Copperbelt. This was
formed in 1936 when representatives from London Missionary Society, the Church
of Scotland, the Universities Missions to Central Africa, the Methodists and
South African Baptist put their resources together in support of their work.
This was because of the educational problems they faced. The Franciscan and
Dutch Reformed Church also provided staff for the venture.

Closely associated with the United Missions on the
Copperbelt was the United Society for Christian Literature, it had a small
thatched hut in Mindolo, Kitwe. It was the headquarters for educational
materials in Northern Rhodesia charged with the responsibility to provide
Christian literature on the Copperbelt. It was opened in 1936. Society rapidly became the main source of supply for school textbooks and also played
an important part in stimulating the production of local books.

Early
western schools in Zambia.

Although
the early missionaries were separated by distance and in most cases without
contact between them, there was closeness among them in their assessment of the
problems they encountered in their missionary work. In view of trying to
capture as many African converts as possible, they devised the strategies and
tactics of their evangelistic campaigns. The African culture according to
missionaries was doomed to spiritual damnation as it was immoral, lazy,
drunken, steeped in superstition and witchcraft. According to them the whole
culture was rotten and needed to be replaced root and branch.

In view
of this, the Primitive Brethren Missionary Frederick Arnot opened the first
school, the Barotse National School in 1906, the aim was to educate, evangelize
nurture Christian leadership. In the case of PEMS Francois Coillard opened
about five schools which were operating in villages. Coillard’s aim of
education was to make his students literate and provide higher education for
bright pupil’s. For instance, he sent five young men to Basuto land from Sefula
to a missionary training school.

The
London Missionary Society under the leadership of Bernard Turner trained
hundreds of African youths in building, carpentry, metal work and other crafts.
On the same station, Mable Shaw pioneered the development of girl’s education
in the country teaching various aspects of homecraft at Mbereshi.

Father
Joseph Moreau, the Jesuit father at Chikuni taught people how to improve the
productivity of their gardens and cattle.

In
conclusion, it must be mentioned that the largest societies had the capacity to
expand their education most rapidly than small societies. Of the two thousand
or so schools operating in 1925, more than half were under the control of White
Fathers (554), Dutch Reformed Church (448), Church of Scotland (308), London
Missionary Society (280) and the management of the remaining 400 schools was
divided among the eleven smaller groups. The extraordinary rapid rate of
expansion was due to superior resources i.e. personnel and finances.

It should be emphasized that the main motive for
educating the people by the missionaries was to make people understand the
gospel of Jesus and be able to read the Bible. The Africans were also to spread
the gospel in places where missionaries were unable to reach hence the white
missionaries needed to train them to preach and read.

The
General Missionary Conference of 1914

The
July 1914 Missionary conference was the first to be held among all the others.
This conference was held in Livingstone in the Coillard Memorial Hall. It
lasted four days and was held with a view to overcoming some challenges that
were being faced in education by the different missionary societies. Snelson
1974 advances that the Primitive Methodists were the initiators of the
missionary conferences which were to exert considerable influence in the
country for a period of not less than thirty years. Originally, the Primitive
Methodists after deciding to translate the New Testament into the Ila language
called for representatives from other missionary societies using the language
to assist them revise the manuscript. Being impressed with this success at an
attempt at co-operation, the missionary societies entertained the thought of
having meetings of a similar nature to discuss problems that were common to
them all. Among the missionary societies represented were:

•        
The
Paris Evangelical Mission (PEM)

•        
The
Brethren in Christ (BIC)

•        
The
Universities Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) and

•        
The
Wesleyan Methodist (WM)

Working
together, the representatives from the above-mentioned missionary groups with
those from the PM unanimously elected a President from amongst themselves whose
name Rev Edwin Smith. The July 1914 Missionary conference like any other
conference was held with four objectives. The objectives are listed below
though not in any order of importance:

·        
To
ensure brotherly feeling and provide co-operation among the various missionary

·        
To
toil for a speedy and effective evangelization of the races in North-Western
Rhodesia

·        
To
enlighten public opinion on Christian Mission and

·        
To
guard the interest of the native races.

As
indicated earlier, the conference lasted four days and apart from simply
considering ways to meet the set objectives, issues of other educational
problems experienced by the missionaries crept in. When you refer to the map of
Zambia given in this module you will discover that many schools were set up and
by various missionary societies. This implies that before the conferences, each
missionary society drew up its own curriculum and school actives were also
carried out differently from one group to the other.

The
general missionary conference of 1919.

The
second General Missionary Conference was held from 18-22^nd July, in
1919. It was also held in Livingstone under the chairmanship of Rev. Adolphe
Jalla of the PEMS. His secretary at the same conference was Rev. John Fell of
the PMMS. This conference was held as a result of the Native Schools
Proclamation of 1918. The main purpose of the conference was to suggest
amendments to the proclamation. The attitude and spirit of intolerance detected
in the proclamation were greatly condemned by the conference. The major
amendments made at the conference included the following:

•       
unmarried
teachers or those that were married but not accompanied to the new stations by
their wives be not placed in villages where no European missionary is resident
for a period exceeding three months without the express permission of the
magistrate.

•       
that
prayer houses be excluded from the definition of schools

In
addition to the above, some resolutions concerning education were also passed.
The first being that the government should give grants to aid the educational
work of the missions. At this same conference a school code drawn up by Fell
was also accepted. At the end of the conference, the delegates agreed to extend
invitations to missionary societies based in North-Eastern Rhodesia.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

Having
examined the reactions of the missionaries to the 1918 Native Schools
Proclamation, write brief notes on the response of the government.

The
General Missionary Conference of 1922

This
was the third General missionary conference. It was held in Kafue from 17^th
to 23^rd July in 1922.The leadership of this conference was elected
as follows:

President:
Bishop R D McMinn from the Livingstonia mission

Secretary:
Rev John Fell

The
delegates from the eleven missionary societies which were represented discussed
a good number of issues which included native reserves, objectionable native
marriage customs, spheres of influence, native taxation and the need for native
ministry.

The
issues above were discussed alongside the three papers presented by Coxhead
JCC, Dr Loram D T, and Latham G C. The paper for Coxhead, who was the secretary
for Native Affairs talked about the need to appoint an expert in agriculture
who would advise the mission s on agriculture education. In his presentation
Coxhead added that the Administration was ready to pay one third of the expert’s
salary provided the missions could pay the balance. In the second paper Loram,
an eminent educationist from Natal advocated that primary education be retained
by the missionaries and that though this would be the case, there would still
be need for the government to give financial support to the missionaries.
Secondary education, however, would be run by the state. Snelson (1974) further
presents that in the same paper it was suggested that the administration should
consider setting up a central institution in Northern Rhodesia on the lines of
Fort Hare in South Africa. In addition to academic work, training in
agriculture and courses for chiefs would also be provided. Chiefs needed to
undergo some training because they obstructed development in their areas. Dr
Loram concluded his paper by recommending that an advisory board be established
to foster close co-operation between the missionaries and the administration.
The third last paper was presented by Latham GC. He was a former district
officer. At the time of the conference, he had been appointed to the post of
part-time inspector of schools for the country. Latham emphasized the need for
co-ordination of effort among the agencies engaged in education. He also added
the following:

•        
That
in order for the co-ordination of the effort to be successful, there was need
for the missionaries to agree amongst themselves about their respective sphere
of influence so that they did not step into the area of the others.

•        
That
the missionaries put their denominational differences aside and that mission in
North Eastern Rhodesia put their resources together to provide a first class
normal school for teacher training that would match schools at Sefula in the
west and Kafue in the central area.

•        
That
the curriculum be carefully balanced between the religious, academic and
industrial elements.

•        
That
a modest scale of government grants for mission schools, where in addition to
literary education, industrial training of at least two hours a day was given.

The
General Missionary Conference of 1924

This
was the last conference. It was held in June, 1924 in Kafue. According to
Snelson (1974), the main purpose of this conference was for the missionary
members to meet the Phelps-Stokes commission, and to make strong
recommendations to the new government on an educational policy for the country.
This conference was characterised by excitement and optimism and there were
addresses by Jones, Aggrey, Vischer, Fell and many others. By the time of the
conference, the BSA Company had relinquished its administrative
responsibilities and all including the missionary societies were happy with
that development. The missionaries were optimistic that the new government
would strive to correct things and assist them come up with a worthwhile educational
system. From the drafted resolutions presented at the conference for its
consideration by Jones and Fell, points were taken and combined and a lengthy
resolution arrived at.

Snelson
(1974) quotes from ‘Proceedings of the General Missionary Conference of
Northern Rhodesia,1925’ that in their resolution, the missionaries recognised
that though secular education was the duty of the state, they desired to share
in the provision of the same to the natives. The resolution further presented
that the missionaries believed that co-operation between them and the
government would be in the best interest of this education. The resolution
stated that the basic principles for all educational work would be that both
Primary and Secondary education would be undertaken in mission schools with aid
from the state. Higher education was to be undertaken in government schools
with mission aid.

The
conference also recommended that in order for the principles to be carried out
there was a need to appoint a Director of Native Education and a board of Advice
on which missions would be represented. The other recommendations put forward
were as follows:

•        
That
financial aid be granted to Central mission schools

•        
That
financial aid is given so as to establish a cadre of visiting teachers for the
improvement of village schools.

•        
That
financial assistance be given to Primary schools

•        
That
government High schools with denominational hostels be established and

•        
That
the apex of the educational system be a central institution of colonial
dimensions which would offer higher education to those who could profit from
it.

If we
compare what was discussed in the earlier conferences to what was discussed in
this conference, we can conclude that there was a repetition of some demands
and just an addition of a few more.

The Phelps-Stokes commission.

The Phelps strokes commission was set up in New York
under the will of Miss Caroline Phelps Stokes to further the education of
Negroes in Africa and the United States, (Snelson,1994). The first commission
that was set up visited the south, west and equatorial Africa under the leadership
of Dr Jones who later wrote a report about the same visit. This report raised a
great deal of interest and as such another commission was set up which would
this time visit East and Central Africa. Among the members of the commission
were: Dr Jones Aggrey,a distinguished educationist from Gold Coast( presently
Ghana); Dr J.H Dillard from the USA who was the President of the Jeans fund, Dr
H.L Shantz, agriculturalist and Botanist from the USA; Rev Garfield Williams,
education secretary of the church missionary society; Major Hanns Vischer,
secretary of the Colonial office advisory committee on native education in
tropical Africa, C.T Loram of South Africa and James Dougall from Scotland. The
chairman of the commission was Dr Thomas Jesse Jones.

The
Phelps Stokes Commission was charged with a threefold task:

1.      To investigate the education needs of
the people in the light of their religious, social, hygienic and economic
conditions

2.      To ascertain the extent to which
their needs were being met and

3.      To assist in the formulation of plans
to meet the educational needs of the native races.

Between
January and July 1924, members of the commission visited French Somali land,

Abyssinia,
Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Portuguese East Africa, Nyasaland,
Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa. The
commission divided itself so as to cover all the countries indicated above. The
party that visited Northern Rhodesia from 8^th to 13^th was
made up of Dr Jones, Aggrey, Vischer and Dougall. This group spent most of its
time at the General missionary conference held at Kafue in order to meet the
missionaries.

The
following were the recommendations of the commission (note that only the
recommendations that concerned Northern Rhodesia are discussed below):

1.      The government to appoint a Director
of native education whose task would be to coordinate and unify the educational
activities of the missionary societies.

2.      An advisory committee on education
should be appointed with representatives of government, the missions and the
settlers.

3.      Provision should be made for the
representation of the native opinion.

4.      Government should subsidize the
educational work of the missions (Grants-in-aid to missions).

5.      Priority should be given to the
establishment of teacher training institutions.

6.      There should be aid for maintenance
of European missionaries to supervise the educational work of their mission
stations and out schools.

Adopted from Snelson (1974)

The British South Africa Company and
Education

When was the first time you heard about the British
South Africa Company (BSA Company)? Mention some of the major achievements of
the BSA Company.

Check if you included any of the following:

·        
The company contributed largely to ending slave trade

·        
Helped to end most of the tribal wars (inter-tribal
war)

·        
Helped to bring about law and order in Northern Rhodesia
as a result of establishing an administrative system

The BSA Company gained control over North-Western and
North -Eastern Rhodesia in the 1890s.Its task was to administer the two
territories mentioned above which were eventually combined in 1911 and later
came to be known as Northern Rhodesia. This, the company did on behalf of the
British government until 31st March, 1924.

“Although the company achieved considerable success in
ending the slave trade, putting a stop to inter-tribal wars, creating an administrative
system it’s record in regard to the African education was one of consistent
neglect. Development schemes which were not strictly essential- and education
for the Africans did not come within the definition- could not be countenanced.
For three decades, these somnolent years as Hall dubbed them, the company
consistently refused to give financial assistance to missionary educational
enterprise in the country and failed lamentably and shamefully to implement the
explicit promises regarding education which had been made in the treaties with
Lewanika, paramount chief of the Lozi and with other chiefs when the
concessions were granted which established the company’s authority” (Snelson 1974: 121)

The BSA company was not really committed to the
development and advancement of native education in Northern Rhodesia. In the
case of Lewanika treaties were signed in 1890, 1898 and 1900 in which he
(Lewanika) was assured that schools would be provided for his people. In
addition, there was a promise to aid and assist in the education and
civilization of the natives of his land. The provision of the aid and
assistance would be facilitated by the establishment, maintenance and endowment
of schools and industries. However, the BSA company did not live up to its promise.

Carmody, 2004 further adds that for the thirty-four
years that the BSA company administered the territory, it established only one
school. This being the Barotse National School set up in 1906 at Kanyoyo. This
was despite it (BSA co) collecting large sums of money in taxes from the local
people. Most of the teachers that were tasked to teach in the few available
schools were poorly educated, in addition to not being trained and being very
poorly paid. All this bordered on the fact that the BSA company refused to
support education though it was eager to control the education system through
its 1918 Native Schools Proclamation.

(Adapted from Snelson1974)

The British Colonial Government and
Education

A year
after taking office from the BSA company, Sir Herbert Stanley (the governor in
the colonial office) created a sub-department of Native Education. This
sub-department was under the Department of Native Affairs. Geoffrey Chitty
Latham was immediately appointed as Director. Snelson 1974 describes Latham as ‘one
among the most capable men in government service who had held different posts
from the time he joined the administrative service of the company in 1910.

Latham
was faced with a mammoth task of ensuring to create a coherent and
comprehensive system on education that would suit the needs of the country and
its people. At the time of his appointment, there were fifteen missionary
stations and almost 2000 schools in which were enrolled almost 100 000
children. The teachers who taught these children had very humble professional
training and the syllabus followed was not in any order while the equipment and
learning materials used were inadequate. As such the education system that
Latham had to come up with was to be one that would cater for both the large underdeveloped
rural areas and the growing townships in the line of rail. Among the people who
were to support Latham in his work were:

•        
William
Mhone (an African clerk)

•        
John
Keith (a native commissioner)

•        
Rev
J R Fell

•        
Hodgson
F • Cottrell J A

•        
Miller
D S

•        
Opper
C J

The
people listed above joined Latham between 1928 and 1930. As such Latham worked
tirelessly by himself in the first years and laid the foundations of the
Educational Administrative System in Northern Rhodesia. The system was to last
until independence. He (Latham) retired in 1831 and is referred to in some
cases as the father of African education in Northern Rhodesia. During his six-year
tenure in office, Latham contributed greatly to many issues in education. He
built up a department that was able to stand on its own by 1930. That is to
say, the department stood independent of the Department of Native Affairs. The
Department was planted on the site of the Jeanes school at Mazabuka. The other
of Latham’s achievements included the following:

•        
He
encouraged efficiency in the work of the missions and evolved a system of
grants-in-aid to them. He also emphasized the need for quality in education as
opposed to quantity, which was desired by most missions.

•        
He
attached a lot of importance to teacher training and constantly remained the
missionaries on the need to have well-trained teachers as they were a basis on
which a good school could be run.

•        
With
the involvement of John Fell and the advisory board, Latham secured the
acceptance of common syllabuses which were to be used at all educational levels
throughout the country.

•        
He
expressed displeasure at education that was purely academic. He indicated that
such a type of education was unsuitable for the needs of the people. Instead,
he fought to promote industrial and agricultural training which would with time
raise the standard of living all throughout the country.

•        
 He assisted in the development of girl’s
boarding schools in every province. With a belief that through the provision of
such, girls would be helped to have equal access to education and be prepared
for domestic and maternal duties.

• He managed to convince mining
companies in the developing urban areas of the importance of setting up schools
in their townships.

5.4.1       
Education during the
War period 1939-1945.

During
the 1930s Educational development took place on a very modest scale. The
1939-1945 war however transformed the Northern Rhodesia economy and produced
the money that was required for the educational system.

There
was a lot of demand for raw materials by the allied powers for war. Output from
copper mines soared. Production during the six years of the war totalled almost
1,500 000 tons (copper prices which had fallen to £ 25.6 in 1932 rose to £ 66.1
per ton in 1941-46.

At
Broken hill mine production of Lead, Zinc and Vanadium were increased and the
production of these commodities also rose. The greatest benefactors from this
boom in the country’s mining industry were the shareholders in the BSA CO which
had appropriated the mineral rights of North-Western Rhodesia half a century
earlier.

Nevertheless,
the government also shared in the general prosperity through its receipt from
taxation. For the first time in the country’s history substantial sums were
available for spending on the development of social services. During the period

1939-     1945 government expenditure on
African education rose rapidly as follows;

1939 –
£ 42 286

1940-     £ 55 182

1941    – £ 69 453

1942     – £ 88 483

1943     – £ 99 405

1944      – £ 123 200

1945      – £ 149 450

Adapted
from Snelson (1974, p. 236)

5.4.2       
Education during the
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

The federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland is also known
as the Central African Federation. It was established on 23 October, 1953 at
the instigation of white settlers and against strong opposition from Africans
who saw it as marginalizing them and an attempt by white settlers to entrench
power in the territory.

Fearing that the two Rhodesians might link up with
South Africa, the British government capitulated to the wishes of white
settlers.

Northern Rhodesia’s copper industry was the prize the
federal government in Salisbury wished to exploit. During the federal period, almost £ 100          000 was

transferred in tax from Northern Rhodesia to Salisbury
mostly for developments in Southern Rhodesia.

During the federal period, the mining industry was the
only part of Northern Rhodesia’s economy
that developed. Education during this period was racially segregated. The
Northern Rhodesia government was responsible for African education while the
federal government was responsible for the education of all other races and for
higher education.

There was an unbalanced allocation of resources with the
larger share going to educational developments for non-Africans and a
relatively small share going to the Northern Rhodesia government for African
education. This was in spite of the fact that copper revenues from the North
financed most of the educational developments for all races.

In Northern Rhodesia,
more secondary schools were opened especially after 1956. Trade schools
developed and some technical education was provided at Hodgson Institute in
Lusaka. Tentatively early moves in 1952-53 towards the establishment of a
university in Lusaka frightened the federal authority in speeding up the
development of the university college of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. This was
opened in Salisbury in March 1957.