Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura

 

Albert Bandura is noted as one of the exponents of theory
of social learning and observational learning. Social learning theory explains
human behaviour from the point of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences.

THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

As stated above, observational learning is a type of learning which
occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others
who are called models, (Weiten, 2004). There are three basic concepts at the
centre of social cognitive learning theory. These include the fact that

·        
People can learn through observation,

·        
Mental states are important to learning (intrinsic
reinforcement) and that

·        
Learning does not necessarily lead to behaviour
change.

Bandura departed from behaviourists ideas that learning leads to a
change in behaviour. This theory holds that people can observe new behaviours
without change in behaviour or imitate the behaviour observed.

Observational learning emphasises the importance of observing and
modelling the behaviours of others. Weiten (2004) defined a model as a person
whose behaviour is observed by another.

Schunk (2009) presents that there are three basic models in
observational learning these include a live model (models that are present or
appear in person), models that are not human beings for example televised
talking animals (on television these would be Garfield, Penguins of Madagascar,
Lion King and Tom and Jerry) and other cartoon characters. The last model is
the symbolic or fictional model which encompasses computers, videotape, DVD or
in print /that is books and magazines.

Bandura (1986) maintains that people’s characteristic patterns of
behaviour are shaped by the models they are exposed to. Some models are more
influential than others. For example, people are more likely to imitate people
they like and respect or better put, significant others.

As discussed by Santrock (2006) Bandura demonstrated observational
learning through the Bobo doll experiment. In the experiment, an equal number
of children were randomly picked to watch one of three movies which showed a
person beat up an adult size plastic toy called Bobo doll. In the first group, children saw the model being
rewarded for the aggressive behaviour as such when later on the children were
given to play with the Bobo doll themselves, they too tended to be more
aggressive. The second group of children watched the model being punished for
aggressive behaviour and hence they themselves showed less aggression towards
the doll. The last group of children watched a film where there were no
consequences for the aggressor’s behaviour.

In this experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate
the behaviours that they observe in other people. It can further be stated
about the social cognitive learning theory that observing a model does not
guarantee learning or later ability to perform the behaviour. Rather, models
provide information about probable consequences of action and motivate
observers to act accordingly. When the models observed are rewarded or punished
for their behaviour, we the observers ensure that we modify our behaviour based
on what the consequences are.

In addition, the social cognitive learning theory stresses the point
that social factors, individual internal cognitive processes and obvert
behaviour cannot be separated as they are crucial at achieving meaningful
learning. It should be noted here that it is this interaction between
environmental factors and personal factors which is referred to as reciprocal
determinism.

To explain reciprocal determinism, the following examples will be used:

(a)   Environment influences an
individual: a given school introduces culture (traditional
dancing and singing) as an extra curriculum activity and students as such join
groups of their choice.

(b)   Behaviour influences the
environment: the cultural groups become big and successful such
that students are even invited to perform at national level. This achievement
in behaviour motivates the school to expand the programme and include
traditional games such as solo

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behaviour:  many students join the cultural groups and view them as future careers.
The example above shows the inter play of environmental factors, obvert
behaviour and personal factors.

For social learning theory to take place, there are four
factors which must be present. These are observers (learners), teacher
(model), learners’ attention and proximity or nearness. The process of learning
is influenced by the extent of identifications and imitations by the learners to the other three factors.

In most cases, an individual will like to emulate a model
who is perceived to be competent, powerful, and attractive, as well as someone
whose behaviour is relevant to the observer. This means that we
learn by observing the behaviour of others.

In social learning theory, reinforcement is not a
prerequisite for a learning to occur, but this increases the chance that what
has been learnt will definitely be performed. This theory is therefore rested
on the fact that an action or behaviour can be performed if the model is
pleasantly rewarded. It is also believed that there is probability that an
observer might drop a behaviour if he found out that the model has received a
negative reinforcement for practicing such a behaviour.

CRITICAL STAGES OR BASIC
PROCESSES IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

It is stated that in observational learning as in any other type of
learning, there are phases or stages that should be followed. If the stages are
not seriously adhered to, the, desired results may not be attained. Among the
stages listed are: attention, retention
reproduction and motivation. The first two stages highlight the importance
of cognition in this type of learning.

(i)     Attention is the first stage of observational learning. This
phase requires that learners focus all their energies on the model so as not to
miss out any detail on what the model is saying or doing. It is also believed
that learners will pay more attention to models who are attractive and are of
high status or those who are in the circle of significant others.

(ii)  Retention stage: This is the second stage,
which involves coding of information with a view to falling back on it or
retrieving it in future. This is so because an individual may not have occasion
to use the observed response for weeks, months or even years. Therefore, an
individual must store a mental representation observed in the memory. The learner’s
rate of retention in the phase of retention can be aided by the use of simple
descriptions or vivid images of the teacher or model. Sequence markers can also
be used to facilitate retention.

(iii)           
The reproduction
stage is the stage where learners will strive to make an attempt and
remember the observed behaviour. This the phase where the learners may have to
make several attempts until the targeted behaviour has been learnt accurately. Enacting
a modelled response depends on an individual’s ability to reproduce the
response by converting the stored mental images into obvert behaviour. This
phase can be termed as the trial-adjustment and readjustment stage. It should
be mentioned here that teachers are required to give prompt feedbacks to enable
the learners to make necessary adjustments.

(iv) Motivation is the last stage of observational learning process. As
stated earlier on, observational learning involves the idea of seeing what the
model is doing and evaluating the consequences of the modelled action. This
actually means the learner has to make the final decision on whether or not to
perform the modelled behaviour. The decisions of which will be determined by
the consequences observed. Thus, learners are more likely to perform the
modelled behaviour if the consequences are positive. On the other hand, an
individual is unlikely to reproduce an observed response unless he/she is
motivated to do so. Therefore, learning does not always lead to change of
behaviour.

Furthermore, reinforcement is very important in the process of learning.
According to the social learning theory, performance or non-performance of
modelled behaviour may also be attributed to the kind of reinforcement that the
learner receives. Three types of reinforcement are distinguished by the social
learning theory:

(1)   Direct reinforcement: A learner who
models behaviour and is praised or admired for the same will be said to have
experience direct reinforcement.

(2)   Vicarious reinforcement that includes vicarious positive reinforcement and vicarious
punishment. Bandura (1977) defined vicarious reinforcement as a
reinforcement that occurs when an individual imitates the behaviour of someone
who has been reinforced for that behaviour. This can happen through watching,
listening to or reading about other people. For example, a child can be
reinforced to work hard in school after listening to someone who has excelled
in education and living a decent life. Vicarious punishment is a decrease
of a probability of behaviour due to having observed this behaviour leading to
negative consequences. For example, an individual can stop abusing drugs after
watching a person suffering from various health complications due to smoking or
after watching someone (model)being imprisoned because of being found in
possession and abusing drugs.

(3)   The third type of reinforcement is self-reinforcement. In this type of
reinforcement, the learner waits for no external approval or disapproval. The
learner bases his decision to either exhibit behaviour o or not on the inner
satisfaction. For example, an individual reward or punish him/herself for
meeting or failing to meet own standards. It is this kind of reinforcement that
Woolfolk (1995) recommends as most desired in learning because it with stands
extinction and usually results in meaningful learning. Learners who are
self-reinforced set their own goals. However, care should be taken to ensure
that the goals set are realistic when this is not done; the result might lead
to either, discouragement or disappointment.

The social learning theory highlights how a variety of personal factors
govern behaviour. In recent years, Bandura has emphasised on how self-efficacy
can influence behaviour. Self-efficacy refers to one’s belief about one’s
ability to perform behaviours that should lead to expected out comes. Schunk (
2009) broadens the view that self-efficacy is very important in learning
because it is directly related to effort and task persistence. For example,
learners whose self-efficacy is high are likely to exert effort in the midst of
difficulty and still will show enthusiasm to perform a task when they have the
required skills.

APPRECIATION OF THE SOCIAL
LEARNING THEORY

It is an observable fact that we acquire, maintain and modify behaviour
that we see others perform. The theory helps us to draw the conclusion that
human beings are not passive in learning. This implies that human beings are
rational, organised and self-reflecting beings who are able to interpret the
world around them. This can be seen in their ability to observe and evaluate
consequences.

The social cognitive theory exposes the autonomy of
human beings to choose which behaviours to imitate in spite of being exposed to
various behaviours. The theory of operant conditioning boarders on the concept
that people learn by doing. However, the social cognitive theory projects a
much different view which is that behavioural consequences as opposed to cementing
behaviours work as sources of information and motivation.

It is because of consequences that people are able to verify the
accurateness or appropriateness of behaviour. It is only natural to emulate
people whose actions have led to success. For example, we choose which
behaviours to keep and when to use them.

Furthermore, the theory lays bare the interplay of personal factors,
environmental factors and behaviour. These are very important factors in the
process of learning.

3.1          
Classroom
Implications of Social Learning Theory

1.    
The teacher
is a model for students in his/her classroom, and he/she has a profound effect on students’
attitudes, beliefs and behaviour (Crowl, Kaminsiky and Podell, 1997). In this
case, the teacher should be a good model.

2.    
The teacher
should always make sure that he/she does not condone any irrational behaviour from his/her students. Any
offending student should be appropriately dealt with, so as to serve as a
deterrent to other members of the classroom.

3.      The teacher should not forget to give
complimentary remarks such as “well done”, excellent”, “good boy/girl,” “keep
it up”, as a way of encouraging other students to imitate a good behaviour.

4.     
Teacher/parents
should discourage their students/children from watching violent films or keeping friends of doubtful
characters.