Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), was a renowned Russian
Psychologist. He propounded the theory of classical conditioning in learning.
Classical conditioning theory explains how an organism’s behaviour becomes
paired with some stimuli/factors in the environment. This theory, sometimes
referred to as “stimulus-substitution”, represents a condition where through
contiguity and repetition in a presentation of a stimulus, a learner
generalizes an existing stimulus-response connection to some new stimuli.

The focus of this theory is on a pattern of
learning where the catalyst for behaviour change is, what precedes behaviour. The theory was based on the fact that unconditioned
stimulus  would originally  produce unconditioned
response. For example, Pavlov believed that the food (U S)
would naturally produce salivation (U R) in dog. 

This kind of reaction or
response was referred to as unlearnt reflex action. He went further to say that
when U S (food) is paired with the sound of bell (C S) i.e. conditioned
stimulus, the dog would produce salivation (U R). This is what he called the
conditioning stage. At another stage, U S was removed leaving C S alone. After
the experiment, the dog produced conditioned response (C R) salivation.

Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning

This stage of learning could be referred to as
manifestation of conditioned response (learnt behaviour). Thus, the experiment
is summarized below with these classical conditioning model

THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING MODEL

Pavlov used
this relatively simple experiment as a model for describing much of the
automatic/nonconscious learning that occurs in everyday life. In any case where
you have “learned” to respond automatically to some sort of stimulus with fear,
joy, excitement, or anticipation you have become classically conditioned. In
fact, a basic characteristic of classical conditioning, is that the learning is
automatic and non-conscious. Pavlov identified four basic components in this
classical conditioning model.

The Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is the stimulus that naturally and
instinctively elicits the target response, which, in the case of his classic
experiment is the meat powder. The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is the stimulus that comes to
elicit the target response, which was the tuning fork tone in Pavlov’s
experiment. The unconditioned and conditioned responses are a bit difficult to
identify since they are often the exact same behaviour. For example, in
Pavlov’s experiment they are both salivation. The fundamental difference is
that the Unconditioned Response (UR)
occurs as a result of the unconditioned stimulus, and the Conditioned Response (CR) occurs in response to the
conditioned stimulus. In the Pavlov experiment, the unconditioned response is
salivation in response to the meat powder, and the conditioned response is
salivation in response to the tone of a tuning fork.

 

Variables in Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

One special
and most common example of classical conditioning is taste aversion. Taste
aversion is a case where an organism learns to have an aversion to the taste or
smell or other characteristics of some food or drink. For example, people
consuming too much alcohol, can be made to learn to associate the smell or even
sight of the alcohol with the sickness that resulted from consuming the
alcohol, hence eventually made to exit.

JB Watson (1878 – 1958)

John B. Watson was the first
American psychologist to use Pavlov’s ideas. Like Thorndike, he was originally
involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human
behaviour. (He is credited with coining the term “behaviourism”)

Watson believed that humans
are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All
other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations through
conditioning.

Watson’s Experiment

Watson demonstrated classical
conditioning in an experiment involving a young child (Albert) and a white rat.
Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a sudden loud
noise whenever Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the
loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear was
generalized to other small animals. Watson then “extinguished” the
fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise. Some accounts of the study
suggest that the conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it
really was.

Certainly Watson’s research
methods would be questioned today; however, his work did demonstrate the role
of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli.
This may explain certain fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

There are,
of course, many variables that can affect the degree to which classical
conditioning will or will not occur in different situations. As you might have
suspected the study of classical conditioning can become quite complex through
the consideration of these different variables, and learning researchers have
examined many over the years. Here, we shall briefly consider some of these
variables that have received the most attention.

·        
Latency: This is the time difference between the conditioned
stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

·        
Extinction
refers to the fact, that, if the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are not
paired for a given number of trials an organism will stop exhibiting the
conditioned response.

·        
Spontaneous recovery:
 This is the re-occurrence of a classically
conditioned response after extinction has occurred.

·        
Generalisation:
This is the case where stimuli that are like the conditioned stimulus come to
elicit the same response.

·        
Stimulus
Discrimination: This is the ability to determine the
type of stimulus that can produce reward.

Note that

1.      
The conditioned stimulus must come
first. For example, if Pavlov always sounded the tone after the dog got meat
powder, the tone, in the absence of the meat powder, would signal that the dog
somehow missed getting its meat powder so, in fact, it might as well not
salivate.

2.      
Given that the conditioned stimulus
does precede the unconditioned stimulus, the general rule in conditioning is
that the shorter the latency the more likely it is that the conditioning will
occur.

The major
principle behind classical conditioning is contiguity. Munsaka (2011) noted
that under the contiguity principle learning could only be explained by
association , it has been argued that when two events repeatedly occur together
they tend to become associated.

APPLICATION OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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conditioning has a number of situations in our daily life in which it can be
applied. Classical conditioning can be applied in a classroom situation,
clinics as wells as in business and school general set up. Researchers have
argued that classical conditioning can be involved in both positive and
negative experiences of children in the classroom. It should be noted that
among the things in the child’s schooling that produce pleasure because they
have become classically conditioned are a favourite song, feelings that the
classroom is a safe and fun place to be, and teacher’s warmth and nurturing.
For instance, the song could be neutral stimulus for the child not until the
child joins with the other classmates to sing it with positive accompanying
positive feelings.

Additionally,
classical conditioning can be applied in understanding different behaviour of
pupils and seeking positive intervention. For example, children can develop
fear of the classroom if they associate the classroom with criticism.
Therefore, criticism becomes the conditioned stimulus, for example, a child
fails a test and s/he is criticised which in turn produces anxiety; thereafter,
the child associates tests with anxiety, so they become conditioned stimulus
for anxiety. Therefore, it comes out clear that test anxiety is another example
of classical conditioning. Bad results on a series of tests will lead students
to have a negative attitude taking tests. Counter-conditioning would be needed
to reverse the anxiety. Relaxation techniques could be very useful in this
situation. In this case, it is necessary for classroom responsible officers to
avoid non constructive criticism.

It is also
worth noting that Pavlov identifies the concept of stimulus generalisation in
classical conditioning, where the dog did not just learn to salivate to the
exact sound of the bell that it had been conditioned to. The dog had learnt to
generalise response by salivating to sounds that were similar to that of the
bell. Therefore a teacher would easily understand the behaviour of pupils in an
event where the pupil is criticised for poor performance in biology test. When
he she begins to prepare for chemistry test, the pupil becomes nervous because
these two test are closely related in the sciences. Hence the pupil’s anxiety
is generalised from taking a test in one subject to taking test in another.

Classical conditioning
can also be used to help pupils start liking certain aspects of school which
they might have disliked. For instance, the four-year boy who may not like
school can be conditioned to start liking school by pairing the school
environment with the toys which the child likes so that the boy can associate
the school to the things he likes. After repeatedly pairing the toys boy would
now like the school environment because he associates the school environment to
the things he likes.

The technique is also useful in the treatment of anxiety problems.
Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a
positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. It
has therefore been established that pairing an anxiety-provoking situation,
such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the
student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these
situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.

Many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people
train their pets. In Africa societies for instance in Zambia Eastern province
classical conditioning is used in the keeping of chickens and pigs in many of
the villages of the Eastern Zambia. In this particular case the owner of pigs
and chickens identifies a particular sound to be made for instance in case of
pigs and individual would shout “kudya
kudya” which is neutral stimuli followed by presentation of food which is
unconditioned stimulus. After contiguous pairing, the pigs are able to
associate the shouting kudya kudya to the presentation of food. This is used
similarly with the chickens where they are taught to associate the sound made
to the presentation of grain. This is used when a farmer wants to gather his or
her domestic animals for counting.

Implications of Pavlov’s Theory to Classroom Situations

The theory believed that one must be able to practise and master a task effectively before embarking on another one. This means that a student needs to be able to respond to a particular stimulus (information) before he/she can be associated with a new one.

Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They should be versatile with various strategies that can enhance effective participation of the students in the teaching-learning activities.

Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning. A negative or positive response comes through the stimulus being paired with. For example, providing the necessary school material for primary school pupils will develop good feelings about school and learning in them, while, punishment will discourage them from attending the school.

Conclusion